What Is a Bond? Understanding Bond Types and How They Work

A bond is a loan. When you purchase a bond, you provide a loan to an issuer (like the federal government, a municipality, or a corporation) for a set period of time. In return, the bond issuer promises to pay back the money it borrowed, with interest. The interest will be received on a predetermined schedule (usually semiannually, but sometimes annually or quarterly).

Bonds are generally issued with fixed par values and stated coupon rates. The coupon rate determines the annual interest payments to be paid to the bondholder and are based on the bond's par value. Interest payments are usually paid every six months.

A bond term refers to the length of time between the date the bond was issued and when the bond matures. Bonds with terms of less than four years are considered short-term bonds. Bonds with terms of four to 10 years are considered intermediate-term bonds. Bonds with terms of more than 10 years are considered long-term bonds.

Bonds typically have a face value of $1,000, although a bond's price fluctuate in the secondary market over the course of its life. When you purchase a bond, you become the registered owner of the bond, and the broker will credit interest payments (the coupon rates) and principal at maturity directly into your account. Paper bonds generally don't exist today; it's all done electronically.

Here's an example of how a bond works: Let's say the government issues a 10-year bond with a face value (a.k.a. par value) of $10,000 and an annual interest rate of 4%, paid semiannually. When you buy this bond, you're lending the government $10,000. Every year for the next 10 years, barring default, the government will owe you 4% of that $10,000 ($400 annually or $200 every six months) as an interest payment, also known as a coupon payment. In addition to the $400 coupon payment you receive yearly, the government will also have to pay you back the full $10,000 when the bond matures (in this case, at the 10-year mark). 

While the par value of a bond is usually fixed, prices can still fluctuate in the secondary market. Bond prices and yields move in opposite directions. When interest rates rise, prices tend to fall, and vice versa. This can affect the market value of a bond if you decide to sell it before it reaches maturity. 

Major rating agencies like Moody's Investors Service (Moody's) and Standard & Poor's (S&P) issue a credit rating for bonds. Bond ratings represent the rating agency's opinion of the issuer's creditworthiness and ability to repay its debt, based on its financial position, management, and other factors. 

The ratings are the opinion of the agency. They are not a guarantee of credit quality, probability of default, or recommendation to buy or sell. Ratings reflect a current assessment of an issuer's creditworthiness and do not guarantee performance now or in the future. Issuers rated below investment grade are expected to have a greater risk than those with investment grade credit ratings.

Let's look at the different types of bonds, starting with the types of bonds that could make up the core of your bond portfolio. Core bonds can help offer diversification, stability, and a reliable source of income. 

Core bonds include:

• U.S. Treasuries
• Municipal bonds
• Investment-grade corporate bonds
• Mortgage-backed securities
• Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities
• Agency bonds 

Sometimes it makes sense to assume more risk in exchange for higher yields—and that's where aggressive income bonds come in. Aggressive income bonds should generally make up only a small portion of your total portfolio to minimize unnecessary risk.

Aggressive income bonds include:

• High-yield corporate bonds
• International developed market bonds
• Emerging-market bonds
• Preferred securities

Treasuries are issued by the U.S. government and come in three varieties: 

• Treasury bills mature in up to 52 weeks and do not make coupon payments. Rather, they are sold for less than their face value but pay their full face value at maturity. The interest earned is the difference between the purchase price and the par value at maturity.
• Treasury notes are issued with maturities of two, three, five, seven, or 10 years and pay interest every six months.
• Treasury bonds are issued with 20- and 30-year maturities and pay interest every six months.  

U.S. Treasuries are considered among the safest available investments because of the very low risk of default. Unfortunately, this also means they have among the lowest yields, even if interest income from Treasuries is generally exempt from local and state income taxes. 

Municipal bonds, or munis, are issued by states and other local governments to fund public projects and services, such as roads and schools. They generally fall into one of two categories: 

• General obligation (GO) bonds are backed by the taxing authority of an issuing municipality. Most municipal bonds are highly rated, however, and municipal default rates tend to be very low.
• Revenue bonds, which account for more than two-thirds of investment-grade municipal bonds, are backed by revenue from a specific source, such as a toll road or public utility—meaning your principal and/or interest payments are supported by a steady income stream. 

Interest earned on most municipal bonds is exempt from federal income tax and may be exempt from state and local taxes (depending on where you live). Because of those tax advantages, municipal bonds typically offer lower yields than investment-grade corporate bonds.

Investment-grade corporate bonds are issued by companies with credit ratings of Baa3 or BBB- or above by Moody's or S&P, respectively, and therefore have a relatively low risk of default. Companies issue corporate bonds to raise capital for a number of reasons, such as expanding operations, purchasing new equipment, building new facilities, or just for general corporate purposes. 

The issuing company is responsible for making interest payments (usually semiannually, but sometimes monthly or quarterly) and the repayment of the principal at maturity. Investment-grade corporates carry a higher risk of default than Treasuries and municipal bonds, and therefore offer a slightly higher yield. 

Mortgage-backed securities are created by pooling mortgages purchased from the original lenders. Investors receive monthly interest and principal payments from the underlying mortgages. These securities differ from traditional bonds in that there isn't necessarily a predetermined amount that gets redeemed at a scheduled maturity date. 

Bondholders receive monthly payments that are made up of both interest and part of the principal as borrowers pay back their loans. These payments can vary from month to month and create irregular cash flows. Additionally, prepayment of mortgages can cause mortgage-backed securities to mature early, cutting short an investor's income stream.

Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities (TIPS) are a type of Treasury security whose principal value is indexed to inflation. When inflation rises, the TIPS' principal value is adjusted up. If there's deflation, then the principal value is adjusted lower. Like U.S. Treasuries, TIPS are backed by the full faith and credit of the U.S. government. Interest is paid based on the adjusted principal every six months, and at maturity, investors receive either the original or adjusted principal—whichever is greater.

U.S. agency bonds are issued by government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs), and the bonds are guaranteed by the issuing agency, not the full faith and credit of the U.S. government. Since they get implicit support from the U.S. government, they are considered to be of high credit quality. Issuers of agency bonds include the Federal National Mortgage Association (Fannie Mae) and Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac). 

High-yield corporates are issued by companies with credit ratings of Ba1 or BB+ or below by Moody's and S&P, respectively, and therefore have a relatively higher risk of default. They are also called "junk bonds." To compensate for that added risk, they tend to pay higher rates of interest than those of their higher-quality peers.

International developed market bonds, also known as foreign bonds, are issued by either a foreign government or foreign corporation in a foreign currency. Developed market bonds tend to have higher credit ratings than emerging market bonds, but they still have varying degrees of economic, political, and social risks. Additionally, investing internationally carries currency risk.

International emerging market bonds (EM bonds) are issued by a government, agency, municipality, or corporation domiciled in a developing country. These investments typically offer higher yields to reflect the elevated risk of default, which can stem from underlying factors such as political instability, poor corporate governance, and currency fluctuations. The asset class is relatively new compared with other sectors of the bond market. EM bonds may be denominated in local currency, U.S. dollars, or other hard currencies. 

Preferred securities are considered a hybrid investment, as they share the characteristics of both stocks and bonds. Like bonds, they generally have fixed par values—often just $25—and make scheduled coupon payments. Preferred securities often have very long maturities, or no maturity date at all, meaning they are "perpetual," but they can generally be redeemed by the issuer after a certain amount of time has passed. Like stocks, however, preferred securities generally rank below an issuer's bonds, and their dividends are often (but not always) discretionary. While a missed payment by a bond generally triggers a default, that's not necessarily the case with preferred securities, although it varies by issue. Given the increased risks and their complex characteristics, preferred securities tend to offer relatively high yields.   

Bond investing comes with a number of risks, but interest rate risk and credit risk are two of the main risks. Here's a look at some risks that can come with bond investing.

Interest rate risk is the risk that a bond's value will fall as interest rates rise. Bond prices and yields move in opposite directions, so when yields are rising, bond values tend to fall in the secondary market. You risk losing principal if you need to sell your bond before it matures, potentially at a lower price than what you paid for it or for what its par value is. All else equal, the longer the maturity, the higher the interest rate risk.

Credit risk is the risk that a security could default if the issuer fails to make timely interest or principal payments. Downgrade risk is also a form of credit risk, as a downgrade in a bond's credit rating could result in a lower price in the secondary market.

Some bonds are sold with a call provision that gives the issuer the option to redeem, or "call," the security after a specified about of time has passed. The bond can usually be called at a specified price—typically its par value. Callable bonds are more likely to be called when interest rates fall and the issuer can issue new bonds with a lower interest rate. If your bond is called, you will likely have to reinvest the proceeds at a lower interest rate than the original security's rate. This can lead to a reduction in annual interest payments, effectively resulting in less income.

Inflation risk, also known as purchasing power risk, refers to the risk that you could lose purchasing power if inflation picks up. Most bond investments make fixed interest payments, meaning they won't change even if prices elsewhere are rising.

Liquidity risk is the measure of how easily a security can be sold without incurring high transaction costs or a reduction in price. We generally suggest investors plan to hold their bonds to maturity, at which time the bond will pay back full par value (assuming no default).

Currency risk, also known as exchange rate risk, is present with bonds that are denominated in foreign currencies. Currency fluctuations can impact bond payments when they are converted to U.S. dollars. If a foreign currency weakens after the bond is purchased, the value of the bond and the income payments may decline, negatively impact your return. 

There are several ways to buy bonds: 

• From a bank or broker: You can purchase bonds through from a bank or broker (like Charles Schwab & Co., Inc.) over the phone or via your online brokerage account.
• From the U.S. Department of the Treasury: If you're buying government bonds, you can purchase them directly from the U.S. Department of the Treasury.
• Via a mutual fund or exchange-traded fund (ETF): Both mutual funds and ETFs pool money from many investors to purchase a broad range of investments, which include bonds. 

The bonds you choose (and in which proportions) will depend largely on your risk tolerance and goals. You'll want to shop around, because each broker often charges its own fees on top of the bond's price. Here's what to consider before buying bonds.

Knowing what type of investor you are can help you determine how much of your total portfolio to allocate to bonds. While each individual investor's goals and objectives should determine the actual allocations, the percentages shown below should serve as a good general starting point when considering how to invest in the bond market.

• Conservative investors seek current income and stability while being less concerned with growth: 60% bond allocation
• Moderately conservative investors seek current income and stability with only a modest need for portfolio growth: 50% bond allocation
• Moderate investors seek long-term growth but want less volatility than the overall stock market: 35% bond allocation
• Moderately aggressive investors seek long-term growth and can handle a fair amount of volatility: 15% bond allocation
• Aggressive investors seek long-term growth and are comfortable with high volatility in exchange for potentially higher returns: 0% bond allocation

Once you decide on your bond allocation, think about your strategy behind investing in them. Your goals will play a key role in the types of bonds to include in your portfolio. (For reference, bonds with terms of less than four years are considered short-term; bonds with terms of four to 10 years are considered intermediate term; and bonds with terms of more than 10 years are considered long-term.)

If your goal is to help protect investment principal from losses, consider: 

• Short-term U.S. Treasury bonds
• Short-term investment-grade corporate bonds
• Short-term investment-grade municipal bonds

If your goal is to diversify your portfolio and add income, consider:

• Short- and intermediate-term U.S. Treasury bonds
• Short- and intermediate-term agency bonds
• Short- and intermediate-term international developed-market bonds
• Short- and intermediate-term investment-grade corporate bonds
• Short- and intermediate-term investment-grade municipal bonds
• Mortgage-backed securities

If your goal is to maximize interest income, consider:

• Long-term Treasury bonds
• Long-term corporate bonds
• Long-term municipal bonds
• High-yield corporate bonds and leveraged loans
• Preferred securities
• Emerging-market bonds

If your goal is to minimize taxes, consider:

• U.S. Treasury bonds
• Municipal bonds

Don't hesitate to comparison shop for bonds, as different firms may charge different prices for similar bonds.

Bonds don't trade on centralized markets like stocks, which makes their true cost difficult—if not impossible—to ascertain. Instead, most are purchased "over the counter" through a brokerage firm that buys the bond on your behalf. The firm then tacks on a fee, or markup, that can range from a fraction of a percent to several percentage points, depending on factors such as bond liquidity and the firm executing the trade.

It is possible that some brokerages not only charge too much but also conceal these costs from investors. Before you buy your next bond, ask yourself these important questions:

• What's the market price? This will reflect the actual price it costs your broker to buy a bond from another dealer (which may include fees paid to the dealer).
• What's the markup? A markup refers to the difference between the market price of a bond and the price a broker-dealer charges to sell it. A markup is generally wrapped into the price—and may or may not be disclosed.
• Are there additional fees? In addition to markup, brokers may charge miscellaneous fees to cover administrative services, clearing fees, overhead, etc.—which they may or may not be required to disclose.
• What's the accrued interest? When you buy a bond between coupon payment dates, you'll owe the seller any accrued interest since the last payment date. This cost has nothing to do with your broker but does factor into the total cost.
• What's the overall cost? This will include all of the above: the market price plus any markup, additional fees, and accrued interest.

Be cautious of firms that avoid giving clear answers about their fees. Even seemingly small differences in markups can mean giving up hundreds, if not thousands, of dollars in total returns over time. It pays to shop around.