What Is a Recession? Causes, Duration, and More

Understanding what a recession is can help investors stay grounded when economic conditions shift.  

A recession is a period of significant, broad-based decline in economic activity that lasts more than a few months. It typically becomes visible across a range of economic indicators, including real gross domestic product (GDP), real income, employment, industrial production, and wholesale and retail sales.

In the United States, the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) is considered the ultimate arbiter of when the U.S. economy is (or was) in recession. The NBER is a private, non-profit organization that considers a full mix of economic data when making that call.

Economic recessions vary widely in length and severity. Though two consecutive quarters of declining real (inflation-adjusted) GDP are often referred to as a recession in news reports, that alone doesn't amount to a recession, according to the NBER. Some downturns are short and sharp, while others unfold over many quarters.

Recessions have gotten shorter in recent decades. The 12 U.S. recessions since World War II lasted about 11 months on average, according to the NBER. Looking further back, the 33 documented U.S. recessions since 1854 averaged 17.5 months, reflecting longer and more volatile economic cycles in earlier eras. 

Some downturns, however, are significantly deeper and more prolonged. That's why economists distinguish between a recession and a depression.

A depression is a type of recession, but it is far more severe and extended than a recession.

Depressions involve a dramatic decline in economic output, extremely high unemployment, and economic stress that persists for several years rather than several months. Depressions are rare and represent the extreme end of the economic cycle. 

Below are three major examples that highlight the differences in duration and severity.

The 2020 recession was one of the shortest on record. Consumer spending and GDP growth collapsed as the pandemic spread, and the decade-long economic expansion that began in 2009 peaked in February 2020, according to the NBER. Economic activity rebounded quickly, and the downturn lasted just two months.

In contrast, the Great Recession stretched from December 2007 through June 2009. Real GDP shrank in five of six quarters, including four consecutive quarters. For many Americans, the slow recovery that followed was not much better than the recession itself because unemployment remained elevated for years.

The Great Depression was the longest and most severe economic downturn in U.S. history. It illustrates how long and deep economic contractions can become. Real GDP fell sharply, the unemployment rate surged, and financial system stress contributed to a prolonged collapse in economic activity.

Recessions often begin with a shock—something that disrupts spending, production, or broader economic conditions. Some downturns start with a sharp pullback in consumer spending, often tied to declining consumer confidence, rising interest rates, or slowing personal income. Others follow a financial crisis, like the 2007–2009 downturn, when credit markets froze, the housing market weakened, and household balance sheets came under pressure from credit card debt and falling asset values.

Recessions can also occur after a period of aggressive monetary tightening. When central banks—including the Federal Reserve—raise interest rates to fight inflation, borrowing becomes more expensive, and the money supply grows more slowly. The early 1980s recession is one example of high rates and restrictive fiscal policy contributing to a significant slowdown in consumer demand and economic activity. 

Although every recession is different, they share a similar pattern: reduced spending, softer hiring, rising layoffs, and periods of negative growth as businesses and consumers adjust to changing economic conditions. Rising layoffs and slowing wage growth reduce household income, further cutting demand.

Recessions end when economic activity reaches its lowest level (the "trough") and then the economy begins to grow. As consumer demand, hiring, and personal income start to improve, businesses often increase production and investment. Supportive actions by central banks or fiscal policymakers—such as lowering interest rates or providing targeted assistance—can also help revive the economy.

While every recession is different, taking steps to build financial resilience can help investors stay confident during periods of economic uncertainty. Maintaining a diversified portfolio, keeping a long-term perspective, and regularly reviewing a financial plan can help you stay grounded when markets fluctuate. Having an emergency fund in place and avoiding large, unplanned expenses may also help households navigate temporary disruptions to income or employment. Weathering a recession can be unsettling, but a disciplined approach can make it easier to stay focused on long-term goals.

A recession is an inescapable phase of the economic cycle, and history shows the economy has recovered from every downturn. Staying focused on long-term goals, maintaining a disciplined plan, and keeping perspective during periods of volatility can help investors navigate uncertainty with greater confidence.